Products And Conscientious Objection
"Many products and activities constitute a direct assault on the dignity of the human person, and demonstrate the depths of moral degradation to which our society has sunk. Pornography, prostitution, drug trafficking, abortion drugs, experimentation with human embryos, the dissemination of defamatory or calumnious allegations that undermine people's reputation: all of these are examples of products or services that by their nature should be considered illicit."
In the multi-author book "Globalización, Internet y marketing: una respuesta ética" ("Globalization, Internet and marketing: an ethical response"), Professor Joan Fontrodona of IESE reflects on the ethical issues raised by the production, promotion and marketing of goods and services by companies.
According to Fontrodona, certain "products" are to be rejected for what they are, while others are to be rejected for the way in which the related business activity is conducted. There are also products and services that are not in themselves ethically objectionable, "but become illicit due to the way in which they are made or sold, such as businesses involving bribery or extortion, fraud, monopolistic control of primary necessities, or serious damage to the environment".
The author concedes that in environmental matters the limits are not always clearly defined and cites the example of products that are the subject of social controversy, such as tobacco, alcohol or weapons. In some cases our ethical evaluation of such products may vary with new scientific and medical discoveries, as in the case of the carcinogenic properties of asbestos or certain forms of environmental harm.
An ethical evaluation should be based on criteria different from those used in sociological analysis, and social demands will not always coincide with ethical demands. Rejecting any temptation to oversimplify, Fontrodona declares that "it would be just as irresponsible to manufacture a product that was morally illicit yet economically very profitable, as it would be to manufacture a product that was ethically acceptable but economically unviable due to lack of demand or poor marketing. The latter would be no more ethically correct than the former, as ethics requires, among other things, that we proceed with due professionalism."
Responsibility for product ethics falls primarily on the owners and managers of the company, but not only on them. A large number of people are involved in producing and marketing a product, and it is up to them to judge for themselves whether what they are doing is immoral, either because the product itself is immoral or because some other element of the marketing mix such as the promotional policies or the advertising is ethically unacceptable. A company that wishes to create and maintain an ethical working environment must put in place the means for people to exercise conscientious objection when necessary.
Fontrodona points out that, although the individual has the duty to obey the laws dictated by legitimate authority in the service of the common good, "the person has primacy over society, and personal conscience, in its quest for good, is bound to a moral authority higher than human laws". In other words, in the event of a conflict between loyalty to the company and loyalty to the fundamental rights of the person, the latter should take priority.
In this connection the author adds that conscientious objection "does not rely for its justification on any hypothetical autonomy of the subject with respect to general rules, much less a disrespect of civil law; rather, it is the expression of a consistent loyalty to the very foundations of civil law, which must always be directed towards serving the moral good. Nor should it be conceived in terms of a conflict between public interest and private interest, but as a higher demand for a consistent and perfected rule of law based on respect for human rights. Conscientious objection is proof of the primacy of the person over the state, of the person's freedom and responsibility with respect to the good, and at the same time testifies to the fact that all civil law must accord with moral values."
For the author, the end purpose of business activity is to serve the customer, and serving the customer "should not be seen as something separate from manufacturing (...), as the idea of producing a product for the consumer lies at the very heart of all manufacturing activity". Consumers and users may, therefore, contribute to improving products' ethical quality either by exercising their right to conscientious objection or by working in society to promote ethical excellence in products (environmentally friendly, fair trade, against racial or sexual discrimination, etc.).
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In the multi-author book "Globalización, Internet y marketing: una respuesta ética" ("Globalization, Internet and marketing: an ethical response"), Professor Joan Fontrodona of IESE reflects on the ethical issues raised by the production, promotion and marketing of goods and services by companies.
According to Fontrodona, certain "products" are to be rejected for what they are, while others are to be rejected for the way in which the related business activity is conducted. There are also products and services that are not in themselves ethically objectionable, "but become illicit due to the way in which they are made or sold, such as businesses involving bribery or extortion, fraud, monopolistic control of primary necessities, or serious damage to the environment".
The author concedes that in environmental matters the limits are not always clearly defined and cites the example of products that are the subject of social controversy, such as tobacco, alcohol or weapons. In some cases our ethical evaluation of such products may vary with new scientific and medical discoveries, as in the case of the carcinogenic properties of asbestos or certain forms of environmental harm.
An ethical evaluation should be based on criteria different from those used in sociological analysis, and social demands will not always coincide with ethical demands. Rejecting any temptation to oversimplify, Fontrodona declares that "it would be just as irresponsible to manufacture a product that was morally illicit yet economically very profitable, as it would be to manufacture a product that was ethically acceptable but economically unviable due to lack of demand or poor marketing. The latter would be no more ethically correct than the former, as ethics requires, among other things, that we proceed with due professionalism."
Responsibility for product ethics falls primarily on the owners and managers of the company, but not only on them. A large number of people are involved in producing and marketing a product, and it is up to them to judge for themselves whether what they are doing is immoral, either because the product itself is immoral or because some other element of the marketing mix such as the promotional policies or the advertising is ethically unacceptable. A company that wishes to create and maintain an ethical working environment must put in place the means for people to exercise conscientious objection when necessary.
Fontrodona points out that, although the individual has the duty to obey the laws dictated by legitimate authority in the service of the common good, "the person has primacy over society, and personal conscience, in its quest for good, is bound to a moral authority higher than human laws". In other words, in the event of a conflict between loyalty to the company and loyalty to the fundamental rights of the person, the latter should take priority.
In this connection the author adds that conscientious objection "does not rely for its justification on any hypothetical autonomy of the subject with respect to general rules, much less a disrespect of civil law; rather, it is the expression of a consistent loyalty to the very foundations of civil law, which must always be directed towards serving the moral good. Nor should it be conceived in terms of a conflict between public interest and private interest, but as a higher demand for a consistent and perfected rule of law based on respect for human rights. Conscientious objection is proof of the primacy of the person over the state, of the person's freedom and responsibility with respect to the good, and at the same time testifies to the fact that all civil law must accord with moral values."
For the author, the end purpose of business activity is to serve the customer, and serving the customer "should not be seen as something separate from manufacturing (...), as the idea of producing a product for the consumer lies at the very heart of all manufacturing activity". Consumers and users may, therefore, contribute to improving products' ethical quality either by exercising their right to conscientious objection or by working in society to promote ethical excellence in products (environmentally friendly, fair trade, against racial or sexual discrimination, etc.).
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What It Means To Be Catholic And A Manager
By Santificarnos.com
On one hand, an executive's Christian identity is defined by his or her identity as a person and as a Christian. On the other hand, it is shaped by his or her social function as an executive.
Humans are rational beings, each made of a soul and body. They are also social beings who need others to develop and grow as people. This is the starting point for building the identity of a Christian, a person who is religious (re + ligare means "bound" to God), faithful and a voluntary follower of Christ and his Church.
A Christian is the image − through creation − of God, and the son − by adoption − of God. A Christian is the son of the Church, which is the repository of faith and the place where Christians see themselves as God's children.
All of this translates into a way of acting and the moral aspect of Christianity.
In simple terms, an executive's task could be defined as: "leading a group of people at a company for action, in order to change the situation and obtain results in an efficient manner."
These three components − managing people, acting in order to change the situation, and obtaining results in an efficient manner − are used by IESE Professor Antonio Argandoña to discuss the tasks inherent to all executives, and particularly to Catholic executives.
In keeping with these criteria, a company is, first and foremost, an organization of people serving people.
Secondly, it is a commercial organization dedicated to efficiency. In some ways, says Argandoña, economic theories regarding companies (as well as sociological, political and psychological theories) are limited in that they do not take into account some of the aforementioned components. Those theories could be considered specific cases of a more general theory.
The Christian vision of the executive and the company could be an adequate framework for that more generalized theory. It does not suffice and, of course, it does not have to be the only framework for such a theory; but it does include some elements for understanding it, as far as a human organization dedicated to serving people.
The Christian Executive's Task
People try to learn about the world through two mutually supporting means: science and faith.
For Christians, science is the same as it is for other people, but with an added function: understand the work of God and focus it toward Him. Thus, there is no reason to invent a "Christian company" but rather to see a company as a human organization that is added to God's plans for humans and to their response to the mission to "rule the earth" (Gen. 1:28).
For the Christian executive, understanding the company completely is part of his or her commitment to the truth.
Redemption adds another dimension to that sense of the world and of the company: Christ's disciple is also called upon to coredeem the world, and to continue the work of Christ and God's task of creation.
So, what should executives do if they want to live as Christians?
They should lead people not as machines, but as the children of God. They should lead people with a sense of solidarity, having them contribute to the common good of the company and of society.
Above all, they should take care of people, in every aspect involved with that task.
This must be done all the while obtaining results with efficiency (through professional competence, fairness with society, and fairness with those participating in the production) and with a sense of future, not just for the mere survival of the company, but for its development and consolidation.
The Christian vocation does not change the nature or the demands of the professional vocation of an executive. It does, however, add new and very demanding aspects.
For instance, Catholic executives are in the position to better understand their potential and limitations, strengths and weaknesses, because they have access to means beyond those available to other executives: those provided by the Christian doctrine and practice.
The company is a favorable setting for acquiring and developing moral virtues, which are, in essence, those that allow the executive to consider the needs of others, while seeing to his or her own development and that of others, and exercising his or her own sense of responsibility.
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The Role Of Religion In Business Ethics
By Santificarnos.com
After years of detachment and separation, the myth of the amorality of business seems to have been superseded. Few today will deny that ethics has its place in the company.
But what about religion?
More specifically, what about Christian moral theology? Looking back through history, it becomes clear that religious traditions have contributed to business ethics both as a source of motivation for action and as a source of explicit ethical concepts.
The Catholic theologians of the 14th and 16th centuries, in particular those of the Salamanca School, pioneered the study of business ethics in the earliest days of the market economy.
Today, however, at the dawn of the 21st century, in a secularized and culturally and religiously plural world, does moral theology still have a role to play in the theoretical and practical development of business ethics?
IESE Professor Domènec Melé´s answer is affirmative, though with qualifications.
Religion undoubtedly impacts on the moral conscience and motivation of many people, including people in the world of business, so it would be unrealistic not to take it into account, argues Melé.
Also, there are at present various ethical theories of a philosophical nature "competing" with one another. Why should Christian and other religious ethics be excluded from this contest?
Moreover, theology does not set itself up in opposition to philosophy but draws on it for support. Theology brings to business ethics new horizons of knowledge by giving it a rational and systematic treatment grounded in the faith. This is a key distinction between simple religion and theology.
Theologically grounded Christian ethics includes a rational ethic, based on the dignity of the person and the pursuit of human excellence, which believers and non-believers alike find very reasonable.
Another argument to be considered is the social role of moral leaders, who often are more religious teachers than philosophers. And if in social life it is important to have "moral voices" of acknowledged authority, then it seems logical to suppose that moral theology, too, has a role to play in a multicultural and plurireligious society.
Lastly, there is the factor of religious motivation, with its transcendent foundation, which should not be forgotten, as it adds to other human motivations to do what is right.
All of this points to the need to focus on developing business ethics from a theological perspective, provided, that is, the approach adopted is realistic and rational, avoiding any risk of clinging to abstract principles or, worse still, giving way to any kind of fundamentalism or fanaticism beyond all logic.
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How World Religions View Business Ethics
By Santificarnos.com
Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto... these are the world's eight major religions. Each has its own organized system of beliefs, ceremonies and worship, and each offers prescriptions for positive endeavor in both life - and in business.
Today, most business ethics textbooks present philosophical - not religious - approaches to business. "This may be because in many countries there is a strongly secularized culture, and religion is considered irrelevant for business in the public sphere," says Prof. Domènec Melé, who is the head of IESE's Business Ethics Department.
Melé argues that it makes good sense to study business ethics' religious roots, for many reasons. For example, centuries before there was any philosophical approach to business, religions had already offered norms of conduct and values to business people. Also, many believers want to know how they can translate their religion's vision into the business environment. Moreover, religious ethics provides a set of consistent and reasonable statements regarding business. It's a different approach that provides new horizons for thinking. Also, in our global world, business means dealing with people of different religions, and ignoring or misinterpreting religious ethical approaches can cause serious problems.
Melé's argus his points in the article "Religious Foundations of Business Ethics," where discussion begins with the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, in which the relationship between creature and creator is of paramount importance.
Melé then turns to the five religions based on ancient Asian cultures, which "root the way of life in ancient and frequently wise traditions." Prof. Melé briefly describes each religion and its history, and then explores its ethics and, more specifically, business ethics.
Judaism, which has 15 million adherents, started with the original Covenant made between God and Abraham around 1900 B.C. The main source for understanding business ethics in Judaism is the Torah. Writes Melé, "The legitimacy of business activity and profit, conducted within a framework of religious and ethical norms, is one of the guiding principles for business ethics highlighted in the Jewish tradition." In Judaism, work, including manual work, is held in great esteem, like a sort of human partnership with the divine.
Christianity is the religion with the most adherents, at 2 billion (970 million Roman Catholics; 220 million Eastern Orthodox; 385 million Protestants; 275 million others). Jesus of Nazareth, or Jesus Christ, born 2,000 years ago, is the central figure in Christianity. In his parables, Jesus makes positive mention of several businessmen who tried to make profits, but he warns against greed, an excessive anxiety toward future needs, and in serving money instead of serving God. Human dignity and concern and love for persons are crucial in Christianity. This religion also stresses a sense of justice in business, such as the strict observance of contracts, observing regulations and working for the sake of the common good.
Islam, with more than 1 billion practitioners, is the second largest religion in the world and growing. The history of Islam started with Muhammad, who was born in Mecca around A.D. 570. Muhammad believed in one God, Allah, and recorded his divine revelations in the Koran. Several Islam business scholars agree that a central concept of the religion is tawhid, or unity with God. Life is unified because it provides the practical way to pattern all facets of human life in accordance with God's will. Business is included and should be run according to the laws of nature dictated by God.
Hinduism, the first of the five religions based on ancient Asian cultures, is a cluster of religious traditions that evolved in India between 3,000 and 1,500 B.C. Today, there are about 780 million Hindus, mainly living in India. More than a theological system, Hinduism is an approach to the universe. When it comes to business, Melé makes two observations: Hinduism has a positive attitude towards business and creating wealth, yet wealth is not the supreme goal. Ethics (dharma) and salvation (moksha) are more important.
Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called "Buddha" or "the enlightened one," began in India around 560 B.C., and searches to find relief for human suffering. In business, Buddhists search for the "right livelihood" and are generally against companies that do not care for the environment or that abuse animals.
Confucianism, one of the three traditional religions of China, along with Taoism and Buddhism, is based on the teachings of Confucius during 5th and 6th century B.C. Approximately 5 million people practice the religion. According to Confucius, "A gentleman takes as much trouble to discover what is right as lesser men take to discover what will pay." Profit is acceptable as long as it is acquired with righteousness.
Taoism coexists with Confucianism in China. It seeks to promote the inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings. "Tao" could be translated as "path" or "the way." It's like a force that flows through life and pervades all things. In business, Taoism encourages companies to nourish people, and the aim should not be personal success or gain, but the common good. According to "Tao Te Ching", chapter 9, "Fill your bowl to the brim and it will spill... Do your work, then step back."
Lastly is Shinto, which is inextricably tied to the origin and development of Japan. The word derives from the Chinese words shin tao (the ways of gods). Started in 500 B.C., the religion focuses on the worship of the kami, a host of supernatural and mysterious beings (natural deities) that can be known through forms, such as objects of nature, or abstract creative forces just as justice or remarkable people. In business, Shinto emphasizes benefits for the group, which is like a family.
Understanding how the world's religions approach business ethics encourages tolerance and understanding. Writes Melé, "A deeper knowledge of religious business ethics might bring about a better understanding of people worldwide. It can also facilitate a more intense dialogue between different religions and between religious and philosophical approaches."
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Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto... these are the world's eight major religions. Each has its own organized system of beliefs, ceremonies and worship, and each offers prescriptions for positive endeavor in both life - and in business.
Today, most business ethics textbooks present philosophical - not religious - approaches to business. "This may be because in many countries there is a strongly secularized culture, and religion is considered irrelevant for business in the public sphere," says Prof. Domènec Melé, who is the head of IESE's Business Ethics Department.
Melé argues that it makes good sense to study business ethics' religious roots, for many reasons. For example, centuries before there was any philosophical approach to business, religions had already offered norms of conduct and values to business people. Also, many believers want to know how they can translate their religion's vision into the business environment. Moreover, religious ethics provides a set of consistent and reasonable statements regarding business. It's a different approach that provides new horizons for thinking. Also, in our global world, business means dealing with people of different religions, and ignoring or misinterpreting religious ethical approaches can cause serious problems.
Melé's argus his points in the article "Religious Foundations of Business Ethics," where discussion begins with the three great monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, in which the relationship between creature and creator is of paramount importance.
Melé then turns to the five religions based on ancient Asian cultures, which "root the way of life in ancient and frequently wise traditions." Prof. Melé briefly describes each religion and its history, and then explores its ethics and, more specifically, business ethics.
Judaism, which has 15 million adherents, started with the original Covenant made between God and Abraham around 1900 B.C. The main source for understanding business ethics in Judaism is the Torah. Writes Melé, "The legitimacy of business activity and profit, conducted within a framework of religious and ethical norms, is one of the guiding principles for business ethics highlighted in the Jewish tradition." In Judaism, work, including manual work, is held in great esteem, like a sort of human partnership with the divine.
Christianity is the religion with the most adherents, at 2 billion (970 million Roman Catholics; 220 million Eastern Orthodox; 385 million Protestants; 275 million others). Jesus of Nazareth, or Jesus Christ, born 2,000 years ago, is the central figure in Christianity. In his parables, Jesus makes positive mention of several businessmen who tried to make profits, but he warns against greed, an excessive anxiety toward future needs, and in serving money instead of serving God. Human dignity and concern and love for persons are crucial in Christianity. This religion also stresses a sense of justice in business, such as the strict observance of contracts, observing regulations and working for the sake of the common good.
Islam, with more than 1 billion practitioners, is the second largest religion in the world and growing. The history of Islam started with Muhammad, who was born in Mecca around A.D. 570. Muhammad believed in one God, Allah, and recorded his divine revelations in the Koran. Several Islam business scholars agree that a central concept of the religion is tawhid, or unity with God. Life is unified because it provides the practical way to pattern all facets of human life in accordance with God's will. Business is included and should be run according to the laws of nature dictated by God.
Hinduism, the first of the five religions based on ancient Asian cultures, is a cluster of religious traditions that evolved in India between 3,000 and 1,500 B.C. Today, there are about 780 million Hindus, mainly living in India. More than a theological system, Hinduism is an approach to the universe. When it comes to business, Melé makes two observations: Hinduism has a positive attitude towards business and creating wealth, yet wealth is not the supreme goal. Ethics (dharma) and salvation (moksha) are more important.
Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called "Buddha" or "the enlightened one," began in India around 560 B.C., and searches to find relief for human suffering. In business, Buddhists search for the "right livelihood" and are generally against companies that do not care for the environment or that abuse animals.
Confucianism, one of the three traditional religions of China, along with Taoism and Buddhism, is based on the teachings of Confucius during 5th and 6th century B.C. Approximately 5 million people practice the religion. According to Confucius, "A gentleman takes as much trouble to discover what is right as lesser men take to discover what will pay." Profit is acceptable as long as it is acquired with righteousness.
Taoism coexists with Confucianism in China. It seeks to promote the inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings. "Tao" could be translated as "path" or "the way." It's like a force that flows through life and pervades all things. In business, Taoism encourages companies to nourish people, and the aim should not be personal success or gain, but the common good. According to "Tao Te Ching", chapter 9, "Fill your bowl to the brim and it will spill... Do your work, then step back."
Lastly is Shinto, which is inextricably tied to the origin and development of Japan. The word derives from the Chinese words shin tao (the ways of gods). Started in 500 B.C., the religion focuses on the worship of the kami, a host of supernatural and mysterious beings (natural deities) that can be known through forms, such as objects of nature, or abstract creative forces just as justice or remarkable people. In business, Shinto emphasizes benefits for the group, which is like a family.
Understanding how the world's religions approach business ethics encourages tolerance and understanding. Writes Melé, "A deeper knowledge of religious business ethics might bring about a better understanding of people worldwide. It can also facilitate a more intense dialogue between different religions and between religious and philosophical approaches."
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Scientific breakthrough expected to advance ethical stem cell research
(CNA).- Pro-life and church groups are optimistic about a new scientific breakthrough that provides yet another ethical alternative to embryonic stem cell research, reports Time Magazine.
According to the scientific journals Nature and Cell Stem Cell, researchers have succeeded in reprogramming ordinary cells from the tips of mouse tails so they are virtually indistinguishable from embryonic stem cells.
Three research groups said they accomplished their feat in mature cells by turning on four genes that are always active in days-old embryos. Some of the rejuvenated cells were able to mature into new mice, demonstrating the cells' ability to create every type of tissue in the body.
Researchers are optimistic that the discovery can be applied to human cells, which would offer an ethical way to create a limitless supply of cell lines tailor-made for patients.
"This would be a win for science, ethics and society," said Richard Doerflinger of the U.S. bishops’ Secretariat for Pro-Life Activities. "It may offer a way for people of all faiths and all ethical backgrounds to study, use, subsidize and enjoy any therapeutic benefits of … stem cell research."
Researchers say the method for human cells could eventually start by simply taking a cheek swab or some skin cells, and turning them into stem cells in a laboratory.
While researchers admit that there are lots of technical hurdles to overcome, reprogrammed cells could become the long-sought ethical substitute for embryonic stem cells.
This ground-breaking research was based on a Japanese study at Kyoto University, published last year, in which cells from the tails of adult mice were reprogrammed to become "pluripotent" — able to grow into many kinds of tissues.
In one of the new studies, published in the journal Nature, the Japanese scientists modified their procedures and succeeded in reversing the cell development toward an embryonic stage — which they were not able to do previously. When the resulting cells — which they dubbed induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells — were injected into mouse embryos, they contributed to the development of all parts of the animals.
Some of their offspring also inherited genes from the iPS cells. Senior author Dr. Shinya Yamanaka, from Kyoto University's stem cell biology department, said that genetic inheritance was an important sign because only cells that behave like embryonic stem cells can be passed from parent to child.
While the new Japanese study presented numerous positive results, more than 10 percent of the mice used in the study developed tumors—an obstacle that must be tackled in future research.
As a result, some scientists are concerned that it is too premature to use this method in humans because it might pose a health risk.
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